Gender Bias at Birth Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Gender Bias at Birth - Research Paper Example During 1990 Amartya Sen conducted a research named â€Å"More than 100 million women are missing† and figured out that there is a variation between the population of females in Western nations and Eastern nations (Sen 1). She even figured out that in nations that fall in the regions of Asia and Africa face the issue of lower birth rate of female gender than male gender. She even asserts that certain Asian nations such as Japan are experiencing women majority population while others that are less developed such as Pakistan and India experience male majority in the society. She further figured out that certain regions of India, the female population is in the majority and in other regions the male population is in majority. The most common reasons cited for decreased women population in an Eastern nation is that Eastern nations are sexist. Amartya argues that this is not true since there are certain Eastern nations such as Japan that have a women majority. A similar research was conducted by Sucharita Sinha Mukherjee named â€Å"Women’s Empowerment and Gender Bias in the Birth and Survival of Girls in Urban India†, in this research she figured out that the previously held view that as development arises, biases towards female birth and anti-feminists believe the decline is incorrect (Mukherjee 26). The researcher figured out that census of India has failed to accurately account for females in the nation. She even figured out that even during the census of 2001 sex selection at birth still occurs. The researcher focused on discrimination at birth in the context of gender still prevails even in the fast developing urban regions of India and the previously held view that this kind of discrimination only arises in underdeveloped nations is flawed. The researcher even figured out that rich families of India prefer birth of females as this does not cause the issue of inheritance.

The Lang report Essay Example for Free

The Lang report Essay The Lang report was one of the first reports to not only investigate why hooliganism occurred, but measures to stop it from occurring in the future it reported that:  There can be no doubt that the consumption of alcohol is an important factor in crowd misbehaviour  In more recent reports hooliganism has not only been committed outside or in the stadium. Under cover operations have revelled that hooliganism has become more organised where the ringleaders of sets of troublemakers on opposing sides have been in contact with each other and meet at a predetermined destination to fight. The advantage of this for them is that there wont is police patrolling that area so they can get away with it. The methods the authorities have developed to stop it,  The approach taken by the British authorities to reducing football hooliganism has been largely increasingly sophisticated policing, surveillance and monitoring techniques, segregation of fans, restrictions on alcohol etc. The British Government has also introduced specific legislation to cover acts of hooliganism.  Such measures are common elsewhere in Europe, the German, Dutch and Belgian authorities, in particular, have been more proactive in their approach to the problem. The development of fan coaching schemes appears to have had an impact on levels of violence in certain areas. Such schemes, which involve social workers deployed with groups of fans, provide useful models for other countries. German clubs are involved to an extent in the fan coaching schemes; elsewhere there is little contact between club officials and the fan groups. Very recently the British police have started using the Spotter system. This is a system that is used throughout the season in the English Premier and Football Leagues. A police liaison officer is attached to a particular club and has the responsibility of identifying and monitoring hooligans, usually travelling to away games and assisting the local force with the detection of hooligans. Identified hooligans would be banned from viewing all of there teams games and before European and international ties take place, their passports are confiscated so that the wont travel to the away games in other countries and cause any trouble. Another scheme introduced was a hooligan hotline whereby supporters could phone in and report incidents of hooliganism and perhaps even identify perpetrators. Although this scheme was promoted as being entirely new, similar schemes have been in existence since 1988, when the West Midlands police set up a 24-hour hotline. Conclusion I believe as long as football exists there will be hooliganism as when people have differences of opinions there are always going to be some narrow minded people who will get angry and lash out. This may be on supporters of the opposing side, the authorities or vandalism of public property. However although I believe hooliganism will always exist I believe that there are things that increase the likelihood of such acts occurring these include:  Drink, which heightens peoples emotions making them more likely to get angry and it also, stops them from fearing fighting and the law. When people drink they stop thinking rationally and do things that they otherwise wouldnt do. Troublemakers these people come to a stadium often not watching the match especially to get into a fight. They often encourage drunken supporters into joining in with there trouble making. They often taunt opposing fans in the hope that there will be a fight.  The mood of the fans contributes to hooliganism, as if the supporters have had a good journey and their team has a good result then they will be in a good mood hence being less likely to cause trouble  Security presence, will act as a deterrent to hooligans as they will not want to be punished for their actions, so if there are many police officers they wont want to start trouble. Although there are still the occasional instances of hooliganism the police have done well in dramatically cutting down the amount of them. They are co-operating much more with their European counterparts and have new measures such as the spotter system and the hooliganism hotline. However there is more that the government can do I believe the police should be given greater powers in arresting and prosecuting hooligans. Penalties for hooligans should be a lot more severe in order to act as a deterrent. Also everyone entering a stadium should undergo a breathalyser test to see if they are over the legal alcohol limit and if they are they should be taken to the police station and fined and banned from viewing there team play for a set period of time. I believe that this will not only act as a deterrent but it will stop the trouble makers from coming to the football so the atmosphere in the stadium will good and the emphasis on having a good time. This will also increase the popularity of the sport as more families will come to watch the sport introducing a new generation of football lovers who wont be interested in hooliganism, just in the sport. Appraisal of study  The problem with my project was that as I choose the subject matter of hooliganism. It was very hard to find facts and figures to back up my points all I could find to prove my points were discussions and reports about this study. Though these reports were written by experts in this field, they too had to work in the same conditions without facts to back up what they were saying, so I am only going on what they believe and they cannot prove what they are saying to be true. So if I were to improve this project I would have to get some data to prove my theories to be correct.

Theory of Economics in the Film Industry

Theory of Economics in the Film Industry Introduction In this essay I shall examine the theory of economics within the film industry and how it contributes to the production and distribution of mainstream Hollywood films. For the purposes of this essay I shall be researching and commenting solely upon Hollywood productions. My research will include an examination of different theories that investigate and explain how economics shape the way that film is stripped down to its bare essentials so that the business of making movies can begin in earnest. Throughout this essay I shall investigate the importance of budget, audience, genre, stars and guidance ratings in relation to the success of a movie. With the collation of this data I shall explore how these economic factors sculpt what is recognised as mainstream Hollywood cinema; investigating how important they are in shaping the strengths and limitations of what is exhibited onto cinema screens across the world. Using this information I shall argue the pros and cons of how a rigidly structured industry can produce works of art, passion and brilliance whilst being presided over by a business-orientated mentality that should, in theory, stifle any creative development. In my conclusion I aim to explain how this is possible and what may lie ahead in the future. Economics of Film The way that economics work in film is complex. There are a great number or variables that need to be taken into consideration from the outset when preparing any kind of financial package to put a film project into production. This ‘green lighting’ analysis seems to have become an exact science over the years in Hollywood; it has had to be as the average budget to make and market an-MPAA accredited major film in 2005 was $96.2 million (this includes $60 million in negative costs and $36.2 million in marketing costs).[1] With the average budget totalling almost $100 million the stakes are high, and the pressure to recoup the costs and go on to make the film an official success are immense. Unlike low budget films where the emphasis is to produce the film for as little money as possible, Hollywood aims high and expects high returns. It is this importance of making money in Hollywood that has led to widespread criticism of its methodology of producing films. How can art be held at ransom to the demands of cash flow forecasts and daily target sales? In his book, Hollywood Cinema, Richard Maltby questioned this paradox: For the vulgar Romantic in us all, Hollywood is not Art because it is commercial. For the vulgar Marxist in us all, Hollywoods enslavement to the profit system means that all its products can do is blindly reproduce the dominant ideology of bourgeois capitalism.[2] In its simplest form it is possible to split Hollywood into two significant camps; the business of making movies and the production of film. Obviously this is an extreme simplification, but for the basis of this essay it can be used to identify how the images we see on the silver screen on a Friday night begin life as a list of figures and calculations on an economist’s laptop. The fact that Hollywood is a multi-billion dollar industry guarantees its survival. It deserves to be viewed upon as a completely different entity to any other artistic medium such as photography , painting or sculpture. The reality is that the audience actually sees an identical copy (a reproduction), but this does not take away anything from the original work. It is not like going to a museum and looking at a reproduction print of a work of art instead of the actual brushstrokes of the artist. As such there is no real loss in value because of this. Richard Maltby writes that: The economics of Hollywood rely expressly upon this technical possibility, since any number of prints can be struck from an original master negative and exhibited simultaneously.[3] There have been many different models that have been introduced to analyse the process of how economics work in Hollywood. The common denominator of these theories is that the most effective way of studying the medium of film is to study it on its own merits and not as a broad comparison to other media. This focused view of film in the field of economics has been labelled as ‘micro-economic research’: Given the interesting characteristics of movies as ideal examples of differentiated products and of the institutional arrangements governing their production and distribution, such increased data availability would make this an exceptionally attractive area for applied micro-economic research.[4] In the late 1970s, American economist Thomas Guback wrote his essay Are We Looking at the Right Things in Film? in which he argued that the study of cinema seemed to ignore the ‘analysis of cinema as an economic institution and as a medium of communication’[5]. Nearly thirty years on Guback’s concerns are still relevant in that a lot more attention is given to the understanding of a film’s economics. Another economist, Professor Robert Picard, explained the importance of audience consumption in 1989 when he stated that: Media economics is concerned with how media operators meet the informational and entertainment wants and needs of audiences, advertisers and society with available resources. It deals with the factors influencing production of media goods and services and the allocation of those products for consumption.[6] When Picard speaks of the wants and needs of the audience he is introducing a wide range of attributes that need to be addressed when contemplating how a film must be produced to subjectively please its audience, and therefore returning its costs. This concern is highlighted in the industrial organisation model created by Douglas Gomery. In it he describes how the analyst must focus on the objective description o f the organisation (in this case the film production) and not the subjective response (how the audience reacts): The industrial organization model of structure, conduct, and performance provides a powerful and useful analytical framework for economic analysis. Using it, the analyst seeks to define the size and scope of the structure of an industry and then go on to examine its economic behaviour. Both of these steps require analyzing the status and operations of the industry, not as the analyst wishes it were. Evaluation of its performance is the final step, a careful weighing of what is versus what ought to be.[7] What these theorists introduce to the equation is that there are many problems that need to be addressed before embarking on the goal of putting a film into production. This uncertainty is readdressed by Arthur de Vany in his book, Hollywood Economics. In it de Vany explains the uniqueness of each individual project and how its life as a commercial product in the theatrical market is hazardous. He introduces the idea that films exist in a battling arena, a box-office tournament, fighting against one another for the public’s attention: Motion pictures live and die in the box-office tournament as they are challenged during their run by a randomly evolving cast of new competitors. The challengers come from films previously released and from newly released films. The contending films are ranked by filmgoers and those with high rank survive and are carried over to the next week. Low ranked films fail and are replaced by new contenders.[8] This colourful analogy of films as knights in shining armour jousting for the acceptance of the audience is a perfect example of how weaker films (financially rather than artistically in most Hollywood films) are often tossed aside by bigger and stronger productions. He continues to say that: The leading products command a disproportionate share of the market and they have longer runs. Even then, a films rank in the tournament is ephemeral and its life unpredictable.[9] Using de Vany’s theory it becomes apparent that certain actions by the parties responsible for production prove vitally important to the success of the project. These actions are described by Albert Moran in his study of film policy: â€Å"Policy is a series of practice engaged in by an agency – whether government, private, or commercial – to achieve a particular set of outcomes.†[10] These outcomes, in this particular case the target being that of a successful movie release, rely on many attributes and the policy exists in a â₠¬Å"complex field affected by factors such as constitutional and legislative arrangements, general economic conditions, the prevailing culture, social awareness, and technological capacities, as well as such human agencies as politicians, business entrepreneurs, white- and blue-collar labour, bureaucrats, and cultural and social workers.†[11] It is easy to be bogged down by so many different economic models and theories when analysing how the Hollywood system works. With so many factors influencing the results the process becomes a minefield of potential disasters waiting to happen. How can anyone truly predict what is going to be a successful film? Writer Harold Vogel highlights this quandary when he points out that: â€Å"Of any 10 major theatrical films produced, on the average 6 or 7 are unprofitable, and 1 will break even.[12] If we were to surmise that this list of ten films were produced by the same studio in one year then the models as used by Picard, Gomery, et al really do not ease the pressure faced by the film executives. The cold, hard facts point at only a 20-30% success rate in their annual production slate recouping their costs. It is all very well studying the market, assessing the competition and second-guessing the audiences’ preferences, but the fact is that 60-70% of the studio’s produc t will lose money. If we reintroduce the MPAA’s statistic that the average major release in 2005 cost around $100 million, it would mean that the studio understands that only two movies from their annual releases must do enough business at the box office to recoup their own costs as well as the costs of the $700 million from the other eight films. According to the MPAA in the full calendar year of 2005, only eight films grossed over $200 million, twelve films grossed $100 $199 million and 36 films grossed $50 – $99 million.[13] Economic models can only interpret the market to a certain point; blind faith takes over after that. Vogel breaks away from the other theorists by boldly stating that: There are no formulas for success in Hollywood. We find that much conventional Hollywood wisdom is not valid. By making strategic choices in booking screens, budgeting and hiring producers, directors and actors with marquee value, a studio can position a movie to improve its chan ces of success. But, after a movie opens, the audience decides its fate. The exchange of information among a large number of individuals interacting personally unleashes a dynamic that is complex and unpredictable.[14] Vogel’s theory on the exchange of information from the public audience unleashing a complex and unpredictable dynamic typifies the world in which the Hollywood film is now being made. It is now, more than ever, that the success of a film in the box office is paramount to how Hollywood works. He describes the essence of the movie business as this: â€Å"The mean of box-office revenue is dominated by a few blockbuster movies and the probability distribution of box-office outcomes has infinite variance! The distribution of box-office revenues is a member of the class of probability distributions known as Là ¨vy stable distributions. These distributions are the limiting distributions of sums of random variables and are appropriate for modelling the box-office rev enues that motion pictures earn during their theatrical runs†¦ Movie projects are, in reality, probability distributions and a proper assessment of their prospects requires one to do a risk analysis of the probabilities of extreme outcomes.[15] What I believe Vogel is saying is that the importance of ticket sales from the box office shapes the type of movie that the studio will produce. A blockbuster film that boasts a line up of A-list stars will fare significantly better than a film that has no stars attached; the fact that the blockbuster might be an artistically inferior film has no real relation to its success. In turn, the ‘bigger’ the picture the more people go to see it. The more people go to see it, the longer it runs at the cinemas. The longer it runs at the cinemas, the more revenue the studio gets back. This means that a studio is more likely to release a major film, perhaps one of its 20% profit-movies, with big stars attached; this acts as insurance t hat it should, theoretically, be widely accepted by the audience. Vogel adds that: The complex dynamics of personal interaction between viewers and potential viewers overwhelm the initial conditions. The difficulties of predicting outcomes for individual movies is more sensible than the current practice of greenlighting individual movie projects.[16] Therefore the studios can have a clearer idea of how the movie is going to fare if there is a star attached. This is a Hollywood trait that has been successful since the 1920s and the Hollywood Star System. If you were to ask an average cinema goer what the most important ingredient of a Hollywood blockbuster was the answer, more often than not, would be that of an A-list star in the leading role. This is not a modern phenomenon in Hollywood. The star system was first professionally handled with the introduction of United Artists, a talent management company formed by D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, William S. Hart and Mary Pickford in 1919. Nearly ninety years later the importance of the agent in Hollywood can determine the success of an entire studio; it is their client that attracts a vast number of the public to the cinemas. If it wasn’t for the love affair that the viewing public has for celebrity then Hollywood would be a different place, yet the power of Hollywood as the market leader in film is unassailable; even from competitive new film nations such as India’s Bollywood productions. The ‘Big Six’ (Warner Bros., Paramount, Twentieth Century Fox, Sony, Disney, and Universal) and the Hollywood stars still ‘front’ the production. As Douglas Gomery writes: The Big Six studios retained a growing appetite for hot new talents. By the late-1990s newcomers Gwyneth Paltrow and Ben Affleck, as well as proven box-office winners like Jim Carrey and Tom Cruise, could command $20 million a picture.†[17] He argues that the current climate of Hollywood movie production is more akin to the Golden Age of the 1930s and 1940s. He believes that nothing much has changed in this time as the Big Six still have a dominant control over production and distribution: â€Å"†¦the end of the 20th century was the era when the Big Six in Hollywood achieved its greatest power and profitability.[18] Another believer in the power that stars have over a film’s performance at the box office is S. Abraham Ravid who was analysed the impact of well-known and well-loved acting talent on individual productions: Profitabil ity studies have been closely related to the study of stars. Stars have always been a puzzling phenomenon. Some stars seem to have vastly superior talents, whereas many others do not seem very different in looks or any other observable characteristics from many other talented performers. Yet, they receive vastly more attention, money, and recognition than anybody else.[19] Another important factor in understanding the economics of Hollywood is by analysing the demographics involved in worldwide releases. According to the figures from the MPAA, in 2005 the total domestic box office receipts in the United States remained near $9 billion and global box office receipts came in at over $23 billion. Admissions in US cinemas decreased 8.7% in 2005 to 1.4 billion.[20] The importance of understanding how the audience reacts to certain types of films is paramount in determining what projects are most likely to recoup their production budgets. One way of assessing this information is by identifying what genre of film is most successful at the box office. I shall examine the importance of genre in Hollywood later in the essay, but for the time being I shall focus on the importance of the film’s appointed rating. In the UK the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) uses a scale of ratings to ‘give the public information that empowers them to make appropriate viewing decisions for themselves and those in their care.’[21] In the United States the classification system is similar yet it is not fully enforceable as it is here in the UK. The MPAA ratings range from G (General Audiences; similar to our U), PG (Parental Guidance), PG-13 (Parents Strongly Cautioned; similar to our 15), R (Restricted; similar to our 18) and NC-17 (Over 18 Only). Using the statistics supplied by the MPAA it is apparent that, ‘consistent with past years, PG-13 films comprised the majority of top grossers for the industry, with PG and PG-13 films accounting for 85% of 2005’s top 20 films’[22] In closer inspection the top 20 grossing films were made up of 5% G-rated, 25% PG-rated, 60% PG-13-rated and 10% R-rated. It is also interesting to note that since 1968, nine of the top ten grossing films have been PG and PG-13-rated (the other is R-rated); this is even though only 33% of films released since 1968 are PG or PG-13-rated co mpared to 58% of R-rated movies. [23] In his studies, Arthur de Vany examined a ten year period of Hollywood production and found some interesting facts: From 1985 to 1996, inclusive, Hollywood made 1,057 R-rated movies; just 60 G-rated movies were made during that same period R-rated movies accounted for 52 percent of the 1,689 movies that did not feature a star and they accounted for 57 percent of the movies that did feature a star. The 100 stars of the A-list appear in, produce or direct more often in R-rated movies than in any other rating.[24] Using the same research data it is interesting to note that less than three per cent of low budget R-rated movies included a star compared with ten per cent of medium budget and 45 per cent of high budget productions: Success rates are a more representative measure of revenue earning power than is the number of high grossing films. The success rate for R-rated movies is just 6 percent, whereas 13 percent of G- and PG-rated movies are hits and 10 percent of PG-13 movies are hits. The box-office success rates for all non-R-rated movies (G, PG and PG13) are twice the rate for R-rated movies.[25] Mainstream Hollywood To summarise all the information I have analysed above, it would seem that the best possible way for a Hollywood executive to decide whether to green light a project would be to make sure that the film was directed by a known director, starred two A-list actors and had a PG-13 rating. Also to be taken into consideration would be adaptations of popular books or remakes of previous films. True to form, Hollywood’s Big Six released the following last year: Star Wars III: Revenge of the Sith (Fox); Harry Potter (Warner Bros.); The Chronicles of Narnia (Buena Vista); War of the Worlds (Paramount); King Kong (Universal); and Hitch (Sony). It is no coincidence that these six films from the Big Six represent six of the top eleven grossing films, with a combined gross box office total of almost $1.6 billion.[26] However, as previously mentioned it is the R-rated movie that is the most popular release in Hollywood. This is mainly due the subject matter of the story that classifies it as such. This subject matter is defined by genre. Film is a medium that can be divided, and subdivided, into different categories. These categories allow the filmmaker to choose what style the script will be filmed with. The resulting production will then attract an audience that appreciates that specific type of film. These categories and sub-categories are referred to as genres and sub-genres. The idea of genre caters mainly for the mass-produced studio films, most notably those of Hollywood. In his book ‘Genre and Hollywood’, author Steve Neale iterates this by stating that: The definition and discussion of genre and genres in the cinema has tended to focus on mainstream, commercial films in general and Hollywood films in particular.[27] This is supported by another writer of genre, Barry Keith Grant, when he identifies that genre movies are those commercial feature films which, through repetition and variation, tell familiar stories with familiar characters in familia r situations.[28] The most popular genres such as action, comedy, gangster and war films are almost always classified as an R-rating; this is why such a large percentage of Hollywood production falls into this category. So why is it that Hollywood still gambles on making films that, according to models, theories and past experience will not go on to make the studios rich? At the start of this essay I simplified the Hollywood process by splitting it between the business and the art. The business of Hollywood is to make money by getting audiences to watch their product, however, it is not as simple as that (thankfully). Even though it may seem that Hollywood is run by men in suits, there is still a lot of power held by the artists. These artists are in turn respected by the business men because they make them money. This money is made by investing in their ideas and vision. This vision is what eventually makes it onto the big screen. There are hugely identifiable strengths weaknesses in the Hollywood system; this is best demonstrated using the first film from the list I have just mentioned. Star Wars III: Revenge of the Sith grossed $380 million and is a blockbuster science-fiction film. When the orig inal Star Wars was released in 1977 there was nothing to compare it to, it created a new style of filmmaking that was light years away from the B-movie science-fiction films previously. Admittedly, the hype of the film and its predecessors certainly helped its success at the box office but it is still a movie that exemplifies the Hollywood experience; pure escapism. It can be labelled as ‘painting by numbers’ in so much that it has a popular director (George Lucas), a couple of A-list stars (Ewan McGregor, Samuel L. Jackson) and a PG-13 rating. However, these attributes are just that; minor factors that make up the whole. Twenty years ago when Hollywood was in its darkest hour, such a major project would probably never have been given the infamous green light. The early 1980’s saw a dramatic drop in box office receipts. The beginning of the decade saw a 9% drop in tickets sold nationwide in American cinemas when only 1.02 billion were sold. This figure got worse in 1986 when just over 1.01 billion tickets were sold[29] (compared to over 4.5 billion ticket sales in 1930). The home video market had certainly dented theatrical sales but Hollywood would always recoup somehow. The immediate problem was the cost of keeping cinemas open; a similar situation to the post Depression period of the 1930’s. Another financial reshuffle was in order. The Big Six were now part of conglomerates. Gulf Western (Paramounts parent company) also owned Madison Square Gardens, Desilu, Simon and Schuster, and Paramount Pictures Television. Yet, only 11% of Gulf Western’s revenues were derived from entertainment industry holdings and just 4% from Paramount Pictures in 1981. That same year, United Artists was bringing only 12% of the revenues in for Transamerica, Universal represented 22% of MCAs income, and Warner Bros. accounted for 24% of Warner Communications revenue.[30] However, by 1989, the entertainment division of Gulf Western, led by Paramo unt Pictures, accounted for over 50% of Gulf Western’s yearly income during a year in which Paramount had only fourteen releases and a 13.8% share of the market thanks to the success of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ($197 million domestic box office),[31] demonstrating again just how important a single film had become by the end of the 1980’s. These blockbusters were to save Hollywood and allow it to grow stronger, and in 2002 ticket sales were over the 1.52 billion mark which was the highest figure for over twenty years, and the blockbuster continues to support the film industry to this day. Without the blockbuster there would not be the same number of people visiting the cinema. Without these audiences cinemas would close. Without the cinemas there would not be the same number of films released; and only the blockbuster would survive. In typical Hollywood irony it is the blockbuster that is keeping world cinema and low budget cinema alive. Conclusion Hollywood is more than just a location on the map. Hollywood is a business, a factory, a production line, a pool of talent, a byword for escapism and a place where dreams come true. Over one hundred years ago when Edwin S. Porter’s 1903 movie The Great Train Robbery introduced complex narrative structure in its editing techniques, and a decade later D.W. Griffith’s 1915 feature The Birth of a Nation grossed $10 million at the box office, it was evident that Hollywood had firmly grasped the concept of making movies. One hundred years later it is still producing films that make enough money to keep the business running. In conclusion to my research I have found that Hollywood operates on the basis that economics contribute considerably to the end product of the films produced. Without an in depth knowledge of how the market works the system would come crashing down. It would seem that this dependence on economic structure and theory would stagnate the film industry; only allowing the studios to release films that were targeted to a specific audience with restricted themes that would guarantee a return on profits. However, the statistics do not back this theory up. Hollywood does release blockbuster films that are almost generic in the way that they play, but the vast majority of films released are not going to return the costs involved. This is where the artistic side of Hollywood shines through. The fact that Hollywood is run as a business does not stop it producing the occasional work of art. There are not many businesses or industries that operate on the basis that around 70% of its product will make a financial loss. This is where the strengths and weaknesses of mainstream Hollywood are most visible. The 20% of film releases that go on to make a profit are all around us; advertising, marketing, merchandising, et al. Sometimes it is hard to get away from the Hollywood publicity machine that pumps its information out to the public, but this is the only way that it can get a return on its investments. It is the blockbuster that keeps the industry running, and as such we have to be prepared that for every Harry Potter there is a Brokeback Mountain and a Capote. Bibliography Burton, Graeme (2002) More than Meets the Eye (Third Edition) Arnold Publishing Curran, James (2000) Mass Media and Society Arnold Publishing de Vany, Arthur S. (2003) Hollywood Economics: How Extreme Uncertainty Shapes the Film Industry Routledge Gomery, Douglas (1989) Media Economics: Terms of Analysis Critical Studies in Mass Communication (Volume 6, Number 1) Gomery, Douglas (2003) The Economics of Hollywood: Money and Media in Alexander, Alison et al [ed.] (2003) Media Economics :Theory and Practice Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Grant, Barry Keith (1986) Film Genre Reader University of Texas Press: Austin Lewis, Jon (1996) Trust and Anti-Trust in the New Hollywood Michigan Quarterly Review Volume 35:1 Maltby, Richard (2003) Hollywood Cinema Blackwell Publishing Moran, Albert (1998) Film Policy: Hollywood and Beyond in Hill, John Church Gibson, Pamela [eds.] (1998) The Oxford Guide to Film Studies Oxford University Press Neale, Steve (1999) Genre and Hollywood Routledge: London Picard, Robert (1989) Media Economics: Concepts and Issues Sage Publications Ravid, S. Abraham (2005) Film Production in the Digital Age – What Do We Know about the Past and the Future? in Moul, Charles C. (2005) A Concise Handbook of Movie Industry Economics Cambridge University Press Smith, Sharon P. Smith, Kerry V. (1986) Successful Movies: A Preliminary Empirical Analysis Applied Economics (issue 18:5) Vogel, Harold L. (1990) Entertainment Industry Economics: A Guide for Financial Analysis Cambridge University Press Wasko, Janet (2003) How Hollywood Works Sage Publications US Theatrical Market 2005 Statistics Leaflet Motion Picture Association of America British Board of Film Classification website www.bbfc.co.uk Box Office Mojo website www.boxofficemojo.com The Numbers website www.the-numbers.com 1 Footnotes [1] Statistic taken from the US Theatrical Market 2005 Statistics Motion Picture Association (p14) [2] Maltby, Richard (2003) Hollywood Cinema Blackwell Publishing (p45) [3] Maltby, Richard (2003) Hollywood Cinema Blackwell Publishing (p45) [4] Smith, Sharon P. Smith, Kerry V. (1986) Successful Movies: A Preliminary Empirical Analysis Applied Economics (issue 18:5) (p506) [5] Wasko, Janet (2003) How Hollywood Works Sage Publications (p6) [6] Picard, Robert (1989) Media Economics: Concepts and Issues Sage Publications (p7) [7] Gomery, Douglas (1989) Media Economics: Terms of Analysis Critical Studies in Mass Communication (Volume 6, Number 1) (p58) [8] de Vany, Arthur S. (2003) Hollywood Economics: How Extrem

Music and the Brain :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Music and the Brain: Processing and Responding (A General Overview) For any individual who either avidly listens to or performs music, it is understood that many melodies have amazing effects on both our emotions and our perception. To address the effects of music on the brain, it seems most logical to initially map the auditory and neural pathways of sound. In the case of humans, the mechanism responsible for receiving and transmitting sound to the brain are the ears. Briefly stated, the outer ear (or pinna) 'catches' and amplifies sound by funneling it into the ear canal. Interestingly, the outer ear serves only to boost high frequency sound components (1). The resonance provided by the outer ear also serves in amplifying a higher range of frequencies corresponding to the top octave of the piano key board. The air pressure wave travels through the ear canal to ultimately reach and vibrate the timpanic membrane (i.e.-- the eardrum). At this particular juncture, the pressure wave energy of sound is translated into mechanical energy via the middle ear . Here, three small bones, the ossicles, vibrate in succession to produce a unique pattern of movements that embodies the frequencies contained in every sound we are capable of hearing. The middle ear is also an important component in what music we actually keep out of our 'head'. The muscles grasping the ossicles can contract to prevent as much as two thirds of the sound from entering the inner ear. (1, 2) The mechanical motions of the ossicles directly vibrate a small membrane that connects to the fluid filled inner ear. From this point, vibration of the connective membrane (oval window) transforms mechanical motion into a pressure wave in fluid. This pressure wave enters and hence passes vibrations into the fluid filled structure called the cochlea. The cochlea contains two membranes and between these two membranes, are specialized neurons or receptors called Hair cells. Once vibrations enter the cochlea, they cause the lower membrane (basilar membrane) to move in respect to the upper membrane (i.e. --the tectorial membrane in which the hair cells are embedded). This movement bends the hair cells to cause receptor potentials in these cells which in turn cause the release of transmitter onto the neurons of the auditory nerve. In this case, the hair cell receptors are very pressure sensitive. The greater the force of the vibrations on the membrane, the more the hair cells bend and henc e the greater the receptor potential generated by these hair cells.

German language Essay

Learning a foreign language calls for various considerations. The foreign language Germanof choice to be learned is of prime importance, for if the pursuit of this language does not yield any concrete productive results save for personal satisfaction, the course would then be considered superficial, if not at all futile. Some people have admitted that they took a course or two in French and Italian because they are considered the languages of romance and, more so, they are the languages of the nouveau riche and the culturally refined. Take these not as an attack on the nature of the French and Italian languages, but rather as an exposition of how people perceive certain foreign languages. By comparison, the German language would be a less popular option for undergraduates, save for those who chose it as their major and for those who have been required to take it under their curriculum. Most people would initially agree with Mark Twain’s musing: German is an awful language. If a literary genius like him had a rather hard time learning German, what more an ordinary person? Not to question Twain’s posturing, but the times have changed and the brain capacity of humans have actually evolved: the German language has, over the years, earned its own following and people have actually realized that it is an amazing language to pursue. So, why learn German? That would be a tough question to answer since it would be similar to asking why one would even bother learning a foreign language. In the Philippines, people already have their fill of a foreign language, what with English being so ingrained in our cultural subconscious. So, why bother learning another foreign language and why should it be German? Save for some very personal reasons, like wanting to understand a relative in Austria or to work in Germany after college, there are other varied reasons why one should be learning the German language, some of which could actually be socially, intellectually and economically fulfilling. For starters, contrary to what Mark Twain had been saying, German is an easy yet amazing language to learn. If one already knows English, then he already has an advantage. The two languages share many similarities in both vocabulary and grammar, owed much to the fact that they share common ancestry with the Germanic languages. Plus, German is a phonetically interesting language. As much as one finds it rather challenging to execute, due to its varied throat sounds, German phonetics makes it easy to predict how the spoken words are written and how the written words are pronounced. One might have probably heard of the terms â€Å"German precision† and â€Å"German efficiency†, pertaining to the fashion by which products made in Germany have been conceived and constructed. Truly, language is reflective of culture, and, as such, one could safely say that the precise and efficient German language is reflective of its precise and efficient people. And it is no wonder that Germans are known worldwide to be great innovators and profound thinkers. Gutenberg’s conception of the printing press, Einstein’s theory of relativity and Brandenburg’s creation of the MP3 digital music format are all testaments to German precision and efficiency. Marx’s Manifesto, Nietzsche’s writings and Hegel’s philosophy are all testaments to the profundity of the German imagination and intellect. Knowledge, if not at all mastery, of the German language allows one to access the works of these people in their original language, thus allowing one to fully understand the machinations of their philosophy or technology. Anyone interested in the same fields could automatically expand their knowledge and skill by knowing the language. If one wishes to be in the loop of world events, one cannot be free from the shadow of Germany and its culture. The influence of German culture in the world arena cannot be denied, and they instigate this influence more via the power of their technology. With 4 of the world’s 10 most innovative companies located in Germany, they hold 12. 7% of the world’s patent applications. Being a nation committed to research and development, Germany exports more high-technology products than any other country except the United States. Companies like BMW, Daimler, Siemens, Bosch and many others enabled Germany to become the 3rd strongest economy and the number one export nation in the world. Surely, companies such as these need competent employees and international partners. With all other things equal, the job candidate with knowledge of the German language would already gain an employment advantage. And this would not be limited to Germany. If one is looking for employment in the United States, knowledge of the German language would be a great edge since German companies account for about 700,000 jobs in the country. Being one of the economically strongest nations in the world, it would not be a surprise to know that Germany is also one of its greater political powers, influencing the international policies of the European Union and even the United States. Knowledge of the German language would allow one to understand how their policies are written and how it affects world events. For justly, the actions of these political powers affect each and every government and economy in the world, might as well understand where they are coming from and how they are influenced. Truly, knowledge of the German language brings about the personal satisfaction of knowing that one speaks in the language of great thinkers and innovators. But, in this fast paced world, knowledge of the German language ultimately gives one the opportunity to understand, if not at all participate in, world events, may it be intellectually, politically or economically. Language has become the primary tool of connecting nations, thus uniting the world one language at a time. So have your own say, learn German today.

5 Unicorns Of Unique Marketing To Stand Out From Mediocre

5 Unicorns Of Unique Marketing To Stand Out From Mediocre What makes a unicorn, besides the sparkles, rainbows, and solitary horn? Rarity. Something you don’t see too often, if ever. So when it comes to content marketing, what are the unicorns? What’s rare and hard to find? Some users wondered about planning unique marketing with their content calendars. Here is  how you can find your own unicorns. 1. Unique Marketing Has Originality Originality, the king of the unicorns. It’s extremely rare, because most content is derivative, and that’s OK to be honest (more on that in a bit). Original thinking, when it comes to content marketing, is highly perishable. Its expiration date is short, since original ideas are quickly aped by others desperate for ideas who then flood the niche with so much sameness that the original original is quickly lost. You’ve seen this at work, where a unique idea appears, and within a month, everyone is laying some kind of claim to it. Our own best practices hamper it, since linking to and reaching out to influencers is a significantly successful way to grow your own following. Finding something fresh and new, as you scroll through content marketing blog posts, is rare. Something fresh and new in your niche is surprisingly rare. Find originality to be unique.All of this is not to say that originality is the most important qualification for content. Like I said, using the ideas of someone else to create your own has serious value (read here). Most of us, myself included, build on an idea of someone else. This is nearly always good and how creativity functions. But prizing originality carries over into great work ethic when you’re making that derivative work. It means you care enough to build on an idea, not merely repackage it. Too often, because we’re always pushing ourselves to find content ideas, it’s tempting to collect, reword, repackage, and barely rework someone else’s idea. You can be original even if you’re building on other’s ideas. The key is to build, not borrow. You can be original even if you’re building on other’s ideas. The key is to build, not borrow.2. Unique Marketing Backs  Up Its Promises Too many content marketers make promises. Empty ones. We all tip toward this trap, often because we’re trying to find that perfect headline that will make content stand out in a crowded field. â€Å"How To Get 50,000 Twitter Followers In A Week† â€Å"I Made $100,000 In One Month. You Can, Too.† Truthful headlines are much less interesting, even if they truthfully reflect the content of the post or the likely outcome of the average reader who might not be able to recreate a specific quality of your success (e.g. an influencer mentioning you online to her huge following) that played a big role. â€Å"Get 50 Twitter Followers In A Week† â€Å"I Made $2,000 In One Month. You Can Too.† Many of your readers probably forgive you for the outlandish promises you make in your headlines, because they are familiar with those kinds of headlines. In some way, we’ve adapted as readers and the big promises are automatically downgraded in our heads. We don’t really expect to get 50,000 Twitter followers in one week, though we do expect a blog post that will give us information on how to get a lot of Twitter followers quickly. Not all readers are so forgiving, though. Their frustration sometimes pops up in comments as they demand to know more specifics to make it happen for them. I get fairly excited about a post that promises to deliver something realistic, and then actually comes up with the practical and specific steps to do so. Promise to  deliver something realistic, then make sure the content  follows through.We have to be careful as content marketers to not eagerly spin our happenstance successes as if they were methodical successes, and be more upfront about our methodical (and less sexy) successes. If it took your solo blog a year to pull in 4,000 Twitter followers, there is still something your readers can learn from that. This plays into the next unicorn, that of being authentic. Avoid promising what you can’t deliver just to get initial attention. Avoid promising what you can’t deliver just to get initial attention. #uniquemarketing3. Authenticity It’s a hard row to hoe, claiming to be authentic but also knowing you need to project success if you’re going to get followers to buy what you’re selling. I had a viral blog post  on my personal blog once. There were some things I learned from it that I shared with my readers, including what it feels like, what I traced the phenomenon back to, and how I managed it. I attempted to dissect the blog post  find the qualities that may have contributed to that virality. But I have to be honest (and I did admit this to my blog readers): I’d been blogging for eleven years  before I finally had my taste of a bona fide viral blog post. It was so tempting to write as an authority on viral blog posts, as if I was swinging home runs regularly, but that would have been inauthentic. Being an authentic success means having a fair amount of failures. Share it all.I’ve since seen other posts reach varying levels of viral success, but I want to be careful to not use that as my spin, selling my content as if I can make that happen for my readers every time. Authenticity, that word you hear ad nauseum in content marketing, withers under the hot glare of branding. We want our brand to be authentic, but we also want it to exude success, so we look for ways to celebrate our high points and spin the low ones as mere teachable moments. You can still show your success while authentically sharing your failures without being patronizing. So no. I can’t tell you how to write a viral blog post, but I can tell you about the qualities that have surrounded them. For reals. And there’s value in that. Being an authentic success means having a fair amount of failures. Share it all. 4. Valuable Unmeasurables Content marketers love- love love love- data. Numbers. Things that can be measured. Because wise decisions can be made with those kinds of things. You can’t make an informed decision if you don’t have any data to back it up. Usually. Data is part of the toolbox. It’s not the toolbox. I can be a bit of a curmudgeon when it comes to data, if only in an attempt to put some rudder into the non-numerical side of the ship to avoid creating a self-fulfilling whirlpool. And also because, for me, numbers don’t trigger ideas as well as other input. Here’s a dirty secret (and it’s not really a secret, since I’ve admitted to it before): I’m not a big numbers person. Sometimes, when I look at a post filled with bar graphs and scatter plots that work to visualize the data someone carefully harvested and interpreted, I get taken up with the colors and patterns in the actual graph and can’t even see the data behind it. Really. Data is part of the toolbox. It’s not the toolbox. #uniquemarketingI look at the measuring cup and get distracted by the color of it instead of the ingredient inside. There are valuable unmeasurables, those things of worth that won’t show up in any analytics you might collect. While you might not want to go on a gut feeling for your next big business decision, you should not ignore it, always. Too often, we get trapped in the problem of the false dilemma, that idea that there are only two options: all for, or all against. There are more than two options. It’s not either/or, but either/and. Data and  a gut feeling. In my mind, the list of what ignoring the data-driven approach to content marketing might look like is endless, but here are a few examples to get you thinking along these lines: One person.  One person might request a post topic. One person might say a particular post helped. One person might have questions that need further explanation. The value of one in a data-centric world is low; you don’t get a trend off of just one. But in a people-centric world, one is a big deal. So don’t ignore the one person who needs help, wants to know more, or asks a question, even if your larger data say that isn’t a topic that will help your overall traffic. Burnout. Your data may be telling you that writing posts about Topic A all the time is bringing in the goods. But months of exploring and discussing every possible angle to Topic A has left you completely burned out. So write about something you enjoy- Topic B- even if your data can’t back you up with promised success. Otherwise, it’s all work and drudgery. So what if it doesn’t bring in conversions. It’ll give you a breather and you need that. Remember, you’re not bound  by data. You don’t serve it; rather, it should serve you. Make use of data, but not to exclusion. There are things you can’t measure that matter, too. You’re not bound  by data. You don’t serve it; rather, it should serve you. #uniquemarketing5. Real Language One of my older posts on this blog dealt with determining how much editing was too much editing. I wrote it out of a struggle I was facing, trying to find that perfect point where you clean up the copy but you don’t change the voice of the writer. Unless there’s a strict style guide  in place and the content creators aren’t really getting recognized as individual people, their unique voice should be heard and not edited out. This was a battle over pet phrases, word choices, paragraphical rhythm (breaking up paragraphs into smaller ones and making the copy appear and read choppy). But this pursuit of real language is more than an editor’s dilemma. It’s also one of accent. The pursuit of real language is more than an editor’s dilemma. It’s also one of accent.Let’s use regional accents as an example. If you’re from North Dakota or Minnesota, you really appreciate saying all of the sounds in a word. People from other parts of the country laugh at how drawn out the letter â€Å"O† sounds, but I don’t hear it. â€Å"If the letter is in there,† I often say, â€Å"it was meant to be said.† We all pick up the accent of the place we hear the most language, whether the south, the east coast, or the northern plains. In the same way, we pick up the â€Å"accent† of the things we read. Our content marketing starts to sound the same as all the other content marketing in the language used. We might slip into jargon or metaphors and put up unknown barriers to readers. We also lose a sense of uniqueness. #Uniquemarketing uses real language- your accent and your voice.Now, you might say this has benefits. Readers in your niche will understand. And that’s true. But there’s a reason it’s refreshing to read the writing of someone who’s reading books, magazines, and other content outside of that singular realm. They bring a bit of that back into the language pool and freshen up that stagnant water. Readers can pick up on this, and it can make an otherwise typical piece of content into something that seems new or unusual. It’s tempting to copy the sound, words, phrases, and approach of other content marketers and influencers. After all, imitating success is one of the paths of success. But remember that you should create content as you, not as Johnny Big Name. Speak to your niche in the language they know, but maintain your real language.

Mills Position on Paternalism essays

Mill's Position on Paternalism essays John Stuart Mill, by way of his work, On Liberty, questions the extent to which government should be able to interfere with the liberties of its citizens. The crucial concern for Mill is where the state should draw the line, at the individual level, with regard to its desires to determine what is best for the citizen and thus society as a whole. As a result of his recognition of the shortcomings of representative democracy, the establishment of his Harm Principle, adherence to utilitarianism, and investigations of liberties of thought and action, Mill confidently, and legitimately, asserts that state paternalism is never justified. Mill has no qualms of questioning the very system that he devotes much time in other essays defending representational government. His concern is that merely arriving at the system is not enough and, it follows, consideration must be given to the shortcomings of the very system. One of the primary inadequacies of such a system, of course, is its disregard of the eclectic composition of the citizenry which gives rise to such circumstances of detriment like the infamous tyranny of the majority. Mill logically points out that in all situations wherein a majority is established the minority will be subject, by and large, to unjust laws. Mill therefore constructs a mechanism by which, he thinks, all citizens, whether within the comforts of the majority or anxieties of the minority, will benefit. This desire and its holistic nature largely arises out of the Millian view that simply because the people govern in a democracy does not mean that there should be no limitations imposed upon t he state. The people state can be wrong. At this conclusion, the naissance of the Harm Principle takes place. Mills Harm Principle, in a comprehensive fashion, draws that line of state intervention with the liberties of the citizen. According to Mill, The princi...

The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception Essays

The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception Essays The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception Paper The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception Paper Theories of perception tend to explain how the visual system operates in terms of two kinds of processes: bottom up, data driven ones, that are pre-attentive, and are a consequence of how the nervous system is structured and top down or concept driven processes which rely on experience, inference and expectations. Apart from the retina, the rest of the visual system has two way connections ( for example the interplay between the lateral geniculate nuclei and the visual cortex), and thus top down processing is an obvious implication of the manner in which the human anatomy is organised. Gestalt psychologists have described how we organise sensation to perceive separate objects: and have developed a number of rules for figure ground organisation. The basic laws of Gestalt are: proximity, similarity, closure, and good continuation. But physiological evidence for the internal existence of their laws (which they termed isomorphism and believed to be based on electrical fields in the brain) has not been found. Lashley et al (1951; cited in Eysenck, M. 1998) were unable to affect vision by disrupting the electrical fields in the cortex of monkeys. However, the grouping theories that they have described occur in perception even at short durations of less than 100 m/s, this suggests that they must be a bottom up process. Template theories suggest that copies of the objects are stored in the long term memory, which are matched against to produce pattern recognition. This theory is completely concept driven, and thus only those objects stored in memory can be seen and novel objects cannot be perceived at all. Since one object needs various templates to represent all the different shapes and sizes that result from viewing a 3D object, it requires an almost infinite numbers of templates to be stored, and accessed. Feature theorists solve the problem by breaking an image into basic features, which are compared with similar patterns in the memory. So called feature detectors, identified by Hubel and Weisel(1959, 1968) as single cortical cells, identify specific(simple) features in their receptive field such as curves, angles, or straight edges. Other complex cells respond to angles, or movement and process the information on a different level, each level adding another layer of sophistication to the visual stimulus. Typified by Selfridges pandemonium model, feature net models explain perception entirely in terms of data driven processes. They do not account for the complexity of a human environment, or explain the importance of context. Both approaches are unified in a bi-directional model of pattern recognition, such as that offered by Mcclelland, Rumelhart, and Hinton (1986; cited in Gleitman 1999). This system offers answers where there is ambiguity, and bi-directional inhibition of alternative detectors explains why priming effects result in faster reaction times. This model begins with a knowledge-driven hypothesis, which makes the visual system more sensitive to data from feature detectors. The important difference is that each level is capable of influencing any other level, in both directions, and thus the term parallel processing has be used. Thus when presented with the ambiguous dalmation figure figure, data driven processing alone is not able to organise the stimulus into a recognisable pattern, but after being told what to look for, the task is easily solved. A major achievement of our visual system is the creation of a three dimensional reality, from a flat retinal image. Depth cues describe how this is achieved. There is evidence to suggest that depth cues in simpler animals such as salamanders is innate (see Spery, 1943; cited in Coren et al, 1994). Visual cliff experiments show that depth cues are used by a wide range of very young animals (Walk and Gibson, 1961; cited in Gleitman, 1999). Binocular depth perception has been found in humans as young as four months( Granrud, 1986; cited in Coren et al 1994). However, depth perception is improved, as with dark reared kittens, through learning during sensitive periods in an animals development (see Tees, 1974; cited in Coren et al, 1994). Monocular or pictorial depth cues such as occlusion and familiar size offer information about relative distances in the world around us. Since these cues are learned they must be examples of top down processes. As evidence of this Turnbull (1961; cited in Chandler.) found that forest dwelling pygmies, unused to environments requiring long range depth perception, applied size constancy only over short distances. They interpreted a far off herd of buffalo as insects. Other learned cues are texture gradients, height in the plane, linear and aerial perspective Binocular depth cues are now believed to be physiological. These include accommodation, convergence, retinal size and stereopsis. Julesz (1959) illustrated that the visual system is able to reconstruct three dimensional perception from random dot stereograms , in the absence of any other depth cues. This occurs when the visual system is able to match and fuse the disparate images in each retina. In other words, stereopsis produces form and not the other way around. In support of this Bishop and Pettigrew (1986; cited in Coren et al, 1994) located disparity tuned detectors in the in the visual cortex of cats. Marr and Poggio (1976) solved the matching problem of how the visual system is able to match which element in each eyes view belong together, and how alternative fusional possibilities are eliminated. Evidence of neurons that respond to crossed (near) and uncrossed (far) disparities have been found in monkeys (Poggio and Fischer, 1997; cited in coren et al, 1994). Their computational theory illustrates the level of complexity that an automatic and bottom up process is capable of, and led the way for developments in object recognition. Their model of object recognition allows for a 3 dimensional representation that is independent of the observers viewpoint. Earlier models such as template matching theories were confounded by the enormous variation that any one object has in three dimensions. It is important to note that various depth cues may be used at once, and the effectiveness of a particular cue will be determined by its reliability in the past. Ittleson (1951; cited in Coren et al, 1994) presented participants with different sized playing cards in a dark room. Since all other depth cues were lacking the largest cards were perceived as being closer, thus illustrating how retinal size was interpreted in terms of past experience (familiar size). Our ability to combine depth cues then is learned. Biedermans Geon theory of object recognition (1987, 1990) is a development of computational theories. It reduces the information about the components of a visual object to 36 basic shapes or Geons, which are matched in the long term memory. The success of the theory relies on the understanding of non-accidental properties, those aspects of a perception that do not change as we look at an object from a different angles (for example symmetry, parallel lines, curvature). Biedermans theory explains object recognition as consisting of various processes. Thus patients with visual agnosia are able to recognise each separate aspect of an object: a brush made of handle and bristles, but are incapable of organising the features into a recognisable whole. However, the theory relies on bottom up processes and does not explain the importance of context in object recognition. This was illustrated by Bruner et al (1951; cited in Eysenck, M. 1998) who found that hypotheses or expectations (top down processes) might influence perception of colour. Thus playing cards of irregular colours, such as black hearts, were reported as brown or purple. The implication is that bottom up processing is used in optimal viewing conditions, and supplemented by top down processes, in less than optimal viewing conditions. Gregory (1970, 1980) a constructivist, used the Muller-Lyer illusion to illustrate how context might be applied to perception, in this case in terms of misapplied size constancy. He suggests that the line that appears as longer reminds us of the inside corner of a room, thus we interpret it as further away than the other figure. Since the retinal images are the same size, the visual system mistakenly infers that the line on the right must be bigger. Experiments reported in 1966 by Segall, Campbell and Herskovitz (cited in Chandler) suggested that the Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ller-Lyer illusion may be absent or reduced amongst people who grow up in right-angle free environments. This would indeed be evidence for knowledge driven influence on perception. However, Gross (1992; cited in Eysenck,M. 1998) found the same illusory effect when the arrows were replaced with other shapes, that could not represent the 3D corners. Helmholtz, and later Gregory (1978) and Rock (1983) exemplify the Intelligent Perception approach. In their view, visual perception of space goes beyond the image itself to include previous experience and habitual cognitive processing strategies. The main problem with the constructivist approach is that many of the top down effects described are produced in a lab, under brief exposure in conditions removed from everyday life. As Tulving et al (1964; cited in Gleitman, 1999) found, top down processing is important under ambiguous circumstances, such as brief exposure of a stimulus, where bottom up processes are reduced in effectiveness. But we would expect that perception would be inaccurate much more of the time, if expectation plays such an important role. This just isnt the case in everyday life. Gibsons direct perception approach is a bottom up ecological theory, which suggests that automatic higher-order patterns between such elements as size, shape and distance remain the same as we move around, and are used to produce a coherent view of the world. They explain the phenomena of size and shape constancy. Thus, although the size of the retinal image may change as we move closer to the visual stimulus, other relationships between visual elements are invariant. However,Size constancy can be found even when other relationships between object and background such as texture cues are absent from the visual scene. Also, as distance cues are reduced, size constancy is also reduced, (see Holway and Boring, 1947; cited in Gleitman, 1999). Favouring one process over another in perception, as reflected in the opposition between constructivist and direct perception theories is too limiting to explain all of the evidence. Innate components exist and are important, but to achieve high levels of visual functioning, these components must mature, and experience allows this to happen. Both processes may occur together, or in sequence, but both must occur. The idea that perception is immediate and begins with primitive features has been investigated in the work of Treisman through Feature Integration Theory. She suggests that primitive features do not have to be analysed or located, they jump in to perception effortlessly. Measuring response times in visual search tasks, differences in shape, colour, orientation and direction of movement embedded in a display, are perceived very quickly. Thus a single letter O embedded in a display of many Vs can be perceived as fast as a single O between only two Vs. This indicates that the visual system doesnt have to inspect every detail to determine whether it has relevant properties and implies that this process is pre-attentive. However, perception of a collection of features is not as immediate, and when presented with features such as a colour and a letter simultaneously for 200 m/s, certain illusory conjunctions were apparent: letters were identified, but their colours were often confused or swapped (see Treismann and Gelade, 1980; cited in Gleitman, 1999). Thus indicating that coordinating several features in a stimulus requires a discrete step that occurs after that of feature identification. This stage requires active focal attention. Importantly, the process is independent of the stimulus, and involves selecting a locus in space, and integrating the features there into a perceptual object. Feature integration is less prone to error when we know which objects to expect. This aspect of the process involves attention, which is an important conceptually driven aspect of perception.

Promoting the Go Green Policy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Promoting the Go Green Policy - Research Paper Example The go green policy was implemented with the objective of saving the environment, by restricting the use of inorganic products. Â  Some scholars have attempted to clear this confusion by defining green or environmental – friendly products as goods that attempt to improve or protect the natural environment. Such preservation or protection is to be achieved by conserving resources and energy while mitigating or eliminating the utilization of pollution, toxic agents and waste (Dangelico & Pujari, 2010, p. 472). The recent natural calamities that afflicted the American continent compelled governments to focus on environmental issues. One of the most important outcomes of environmental damage is climate change. Scholars like Glave have contended that governments and people should act immediately to save the environment for the benefit of future generations (McRae, 2007, p. 133). In the absence of such measures, the future generations will inherit a planet that is beset with defore station, water and air pollution, and unpredictable weather patterns. Going green or making decisions that are friendly towards the environment require the government and the people to play an active part in protecting the earth from degradation, due to human activities (McRae, 2007, p. 133). In order to promote the go green policy, the US government has enacted the Energy Policy Act of 2005. Under the provisions of this act, the Internal Revenue Service provides a number of tax benefits to people who purchase energy-efficient appliances (McRae, 2007, p. 133).

Essentials of Corporate Fraud Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Essentials of Corporate Fraud - Assignment Example Extortion; refers to the deliberate action of a person to commit theft by seeking to obtain property or services through advancing threats to others (Coenen 2008). One specific element of extortion that the credit manager may have participated in is exposing secrets or thought facts, which may be true or untrue with the intention of subjecting anyone to hatred, contempt or mockery or to damage the individual’s credit or business. The manager’s operations can be vetted to detect any instances of fraud. A board of vetting can be hired or instituted to assess the extent of his actions, especially to track his dealings with the applicants. The credit manager’s transactions with the credit applicants can be evaluated through a credit assessment report. It will can a brief description of the two parties’ submission during the process of credit application and evaluation. The report has to be signed by both the manager and the client. It will state whether the client has been subjected to any form of extortion or not. The clients/ customers/ applicants of loans can be given an avenue of reporting their grievances to the company. Such avenues can be in form of a quality check/ control for the services offered to them by the credit manager. Through such avenues, they can reveal instances of extortion or attempts of the same to the company. c. Suppose there was no direct evidence of fraud detected in the credit manager’s operations, there will be no action to be taken on this case, against him. He is well known as a very hard worker, who lives close to the branch and frequently works late into the evening. He also has not taken any vacations in three years in spite of the bank policy that all employees take a least a weeks vacation every year.  

Environmental and social impact from AL-HAMRA tower On heart of Kuwait Essay

Environmental and social impact from AL-HAMRA tower On heart of Kuwait city - Essay Example The Al Hamra Tower, for the purpose of its construction, has occupied almost 18,000-square meter of space in the East Maqwa district of Kuwait City. Two leading construction companies, Al Hamra Real Estate and Ajial Real Estate that represents the owner, have collaborated together for successful construction of the modern architectural landmark. In addition to the various facilities offered to the national and international visitors, this tower will also comprise a 77-story tower consisting of prime office space and crowned by a spectacular rooftop restaurant, a spa and an attached lifestyle shopping center. The shopping center will include a 10-screen Cineplex which will also have IMAX theaters. Despite the reason that the Al Hamra Tower will prove advantageous for the citizens of Kuwait in many ways and it will also add to the overall aesthetic beauty of the city but at the same time there is no scope to deny that it will also cause a great deal of environmental hazards during the time of its construction. Thus, it is important in this context to receive an overview of the whole situation, before and after construction of the tower. It has also been estimated by the constructing parties of the tower that aftermath its completion, the tower will contribute to a great extent in changing the overall socio-economic condition of the surrounding area. As this tower will be one of the most important centers for business and several other types of jobs, it is expected that after completion of the tower access of common localities to different job and income opportunities will also enhance accordingly. Thus, erection of the tower contains within its scope the twofold aspects of goo d and evil from societal perspective. The main aim of the report is to discuss the environmental and social effects resulted from erection of this project on the surrounding environment (i.e. during construction and after completion) and on the physical life in

EASING THE IMPACTS OF CUBA'S COMING CRISIS Essay

EASING THE IMPACTS OF CUBA'S COMING CRISIS - Essay Example In my opinion, Julia’s arguments are partly right and partly wrong. This paper critically analyses the claims of Julia E. Sweig. Even though United Sates is keen in establishing ties with communist China, the same interest they never shown against Cuba. This is because of the differences in attitudes of leaders in China and Cuba towards America. Moreover, keeping strong relations with China is necessary for America because of strategic reasons. China is rapidly emerging as the global power whereas same thing cannot be said about Cuba. China wants to sell their products in global markets and America is the most important market for them. So they realised that keeping strong relationships with America is necessary for their economic development. On the other hand, Cuba does not possess many products to sell in international market. So America’s negative attitude towards Cuba may not be a worrying factor for them. Moreover, the enmity between Castro and American administration forced Cuba to keep a distance with America. In short, America’s reluctance in establishing strong ties with Cuba can be ea sily understood. â€Å"China, Venezuela and Russia, along with American friends like Spain, Canada, Brazil and even Israel, are investing in Cuban oil, minerals, tourism, infrastructure, agriculture and biotech† (Sweig). In my opinion, if Israel can invest in Cuba, America can also do the same thing without a second thought. At the same time, is should be noted that Cubans cannot accept American presence in their soil because of the past experiences. In my opinion, America may think about stronger ties with Cuba only after the Castro era. Fidel Castro may not forgive Americans for the past attempts CIA made to kill him. However, it is not wise for Cuba to keep a distance with America because of the past bitter experiences they did suffer from the hands of America. Globalization and liberalization has opened many opportunities to developing countries and it is

Starbucks Coffee and Its Target Audience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Starbucks Coffee and Its Target Audience - Essay Example According to the Italian tradition coffee houses are like a place for conversation and that provides the customers with a sense of community. From the very beginning Starbucks has been a very different company. The company has not only celebrated the coffee and rich tradition but also successfully brought a feeling of connection. The company endeavors to bring an exceptional experience to the lives of its target market (Clark, Taylor 2007; Starbucks Corporation 2011) Starbucks’ target audience mainly comprises of the upscale coffee drinkers. The coffee chain provides an opportunity to its customers to take a break from the busy and hectic lives and spend some time in a relaxing atmosphere. Starbucks has a very well defined target audience. It has a target market in each age segment whether its adults, young adults or kids and teens. The primary target market of Starbucks consists of men and women aged between 25 to 40 years from urban areas and usually with high incomes. This target segment accounts for almost half the sales of the Starbucks. In order to appeal this target audience Starbucks works keep its products current and position them in such a way that they become a status symbol. Then comes the target market of young adults aged between 18 to 24 years. This segment accounts for 40 percent of the sales of the company. ... It makes it easier for the students whether they want to hang in there and work on their projects or it can be that they just want to hang in there to enjoy the coffee. The relaxing atmosphere provided by the Starbucks stores is an appealing factor to both the adult and young adult target audience. Now moving to the third target market segment that Starbucks is serving, comprising of kids and teens aged between 13 to 17 years. Though this segment is not large and accounts for only 2 percent of the total Starbucks sales, but still the company focuses on this segment. The main reason for the focus is that it is mainly the parents who purchase items for their kids. There are several products that Starbucks has just made for the kids and teenagers. Starbucks do not target the kids segment directly but it does make sure that its products are kid-friendly. The company also offers special child sizes in order to attract the kids (Starbucks Corporation 2011) Starbucks has formed a strong bra nd image in the minds of its target audience. It has used the selective specialization, product specialization and market specialization techniques for selecting its market segments. Target audience of Starbucks trusts the brand and associates it with high quality. There are certain requirements that the target market has from this famous brand as they look up to it with great admiration. The store has created a sense of convenience in the minds of its customers. Almost where ever they go, especially in United States they’ll found a Starbucks franchise within the respective vicinity. This means that there are several places still left that do not cater to the target audience. These places do not have a Starbucks franchise and

Research &Evaluation of a service Initiative Essay

Research &Evaluation of a service Initiative - Essay Example en has become a serious concern and needs to be studied at primary healthcare setting, using wider platform of service initiatives (O’Hara et al., 1984; Whitton, Warner & Appleby, 1996). The study would be making efforts to identify the needs of the mothers and critically evaluate the support and proactive participation of peer support groups for women with PND in St. Albans. I am a student healthcare visitors and the student would greatly facilitate in exploring the various facets of timely interventions to reduce pnd. There is considerable evidence to show that PND has a substantial impact on the mother, her partner and baby (Linnet et al, 2003; Brown, Bacigalupo, 2006; Hall & Elliman, 2008). Evidence suggests that mothers’ psychosocial and mental health can have a significant effect on the mother and baby relationship and that PND can result in both emotional and cognitive disorders in the infant (Bee & Boyd, 2008; Stein et al.,1991; Murray & Cooper, 1991). All of which have significant health impacts on individuals and society, signifying a major public health issue (Hearn et al., 1998; Briscoe, 1986). Motherhood is one of the most important and challenging role of women. It becomes a lifelong learning process and is hugely facilitated by emotional support of the family (Scrandis, 2005). But often, the changing role of single women into mother is accompanied by socio psychological adjustments which are hugely facilitated by the husband, support family and peer groups (Rodrigues et al., 2000; Oats et al., 2004). The social expectations become highly stressful because of the various factors like lack of knowledge, conflicting views and differences about childcare between the expectant mothers and peer group. Very often this adversely impacts the self confidence and promotes doubts about one’s competency level of being a good mother thereby creating stress and pnd amongst the women (Dressel & Clark, 1990; Beck, 2002). Thus, encouraging family support

EASING THE IMPACTS OF CUBA'S COMING CRISIS Essay

EASING THE IMPACTS OF CUBA'S COMING CRISIS - Essay Example In my opinion, Julia’s arguments are partly right and partly wrong. This paper critically analyses the claims of Julia E. Sweig. Even though United Sates is keen in establishing ties with communist China, the same interest they never shown against Cuba. This is because of the differences in attitudes of leaders in China and Cuba towards America. Moreover, keeping strong relations with China is necessary for America because of strategic reasons. China is rapidly emerging as the global power whereas same thing cannot be said about Cuba. China wants to sell their products in global markets and America is the most important market for them. So they realised that keeping strong relationships with America is necessary for their economic development. On the other hand, Cuba does not possess many products to sell in international market. So America’s negative attitude towards Cuba may not be a worrying factor for them. Moreover, the enmity between Castro and American administration forced Cuba to keep a distance with America. In short, America’s reluctance in establishing strong ties with Cuba can be ea sily understood. â€Å"China, Venezuela and Russia, along with American friends like Spain, Canada, Brazil and even Israel, are investing in Cuban oil, minerals, tourism, infrastructure, agriculture and biotech† (Sweig). In my opinion, if Israel can invest in Cuba, America can also do the same thing without a second thought. At the same time, is should be noted that Cubans cannot accept American presence in their soil because of the past experiences. In my opinion, America may think about stronger ties with Cuba only after the Castro era. Fidel Castro may not forgive Americans for the past attempts CIA made to kill him. However, it is not wise for Cuba to keep a distance with America because of the past bitter experiences they did suffer from the hands of America. Globalization and liberalization has opened many opportunities to developing countries and it is

Research &Evaluation of a service Initiative Essay

Research &Evaluation of a service Initiative - Essay Example en has become a serious concern and needs to be studied at primary healthcare setting, using wider platform of service initiatives (O’Hara et al., 1984; Whitton, Warner & Appleby, 1996). The study would be making efforts to identify the needs of the mothers and critically evaluate the support and proactive participation of peer support groups for women with PND in St. Albans. I am a student healthcare visitors and the student would greatly facilitate in exploring the various facets of timely interventions to reduce pnd. There is considerable evidence to show that PND has a substantial impact on the mother, her partner and baby (Linnet et al, 2003; Brown, Bacigalupo, 2006; Hall & Elliman, 2008). Evidence suggests that mothers’ psychosocial and mental health can have a significant effect on the mother and baby relationship and that PND can result in both emotional and cognitive disorders in the infant (Bee & Boyd, 2008; Stein et al.,1991; Murray & Cooper, 1991). All of which have significant health impacts on individuals and society, signifying a major public health issue (Hearn et al., 1998; Briscoe, 1986). Motherhood is one of the most important and challenging role of women. It becomes a lifelong learning process and is hugely facilitated by emotional support of the family (Scrandis, 2005). But often, the changing role of single women into mother is accompanied by socio psychological adjustments which are hugely facilitated by the husband, support family and peer groups (Rodrigues et al., 2000; Oats et al., 2004). The social expectations become highly stressful because of the various factors like lack of knowledge, conflicting views and differences about childcare between the expectant mothers and peer group. Very often this adversely impacts the self confidence and promotes doubts about one’s competency level of being a good mother thereby creating stress and pnd amongst the women (Dressel & Clark, 1990; Beck, 2002). Thus, encouraging family support

Theories and Principles for Planning and Enabling Learning Essay Example for Free

Theories and Principles for Planning and Enabling Learning Essay Unit 4 Theories and principles for planning and enabling learning Introduction There are four main schools of thought around the concept of teaching and learning. This assignment aims to discuss what those schools are, how each of them are relevant to a teaching approach and how some of those theories relate to my own working practice. Identify and discuss the significance of relevant theories and principles of learning and communication The four schools which impact on learning are Behaviourist The premise behind this theory is that learning occurs because of an external stimulus. The teacher will impact on learning significantly and therefore learning will be a passive process. Skinner (1904 – 1990) used a ‘skinner box’ to show that animals would repeat an action when rewarded either through positive or negative reinforcement. In the learning environment examples of this theory are when a learner is successful they may gain a certificate, verbal praise, longer break (positive reinforcement) or achieving a high grade allowing them to miss out additional pieces of coursework. (negative reinforcement) E. L Thorndike (1874 – 1949) played a crucial role in determining key laws to learning from a behaviourist perspective. He argued that learning was a gradual process and certain conditions would encourage learning. These were: a) The law of effect – learners are more likely to continue with a behaviour /learning if there is some sort of reward. Most commonly in the learning environment, a teacher will give verbal praise for success and positive efforts. b) The law of recency – the most recent learning is most likely to be remembered and where a task has been completed and rewarded soon after will have most impact on a learner. A good example is in DTLLS, assignments and journals are read and feedback given very soon after it has been submitted. It helps learners to know that they have been successful and achieved. c) The law of exercise – The more a task is completed the quicker it is achieved. Within those 3 domains there are 6 levels of learning development. Starting from the bottom, with the easiest level, to the top, which is the most complex level of learning and achieving a form of ‘mastery in a subject’. When looking at Blooms 3 dimensional pyramid, I would argue that the behaviourist schools of thought would only promote lower level learning purely because there is no encouragement to think outside of the box and have free reign to test out hypotheses and ideas. Bloom taxonomy of learning has played a significant part in planning and enabling learning. The application of his theory helps teachers take an inclusive approach by being able to differentiate tasks to suit the learners’ abilities at that current time. It also means that whilst different levels of tasks are being set, all learners can grow at their own rate and feel fully valued in the process. We might be setting different learning goals with learners based on their current level of learning but with a view to helping them to grow towards the next level of learning in Blooms model. Therefore, Teachers should be focused on promoting a growth from surface learning or learning without understanding (Petty, G. Pg 11. 2004) to deep understanding where the learner is able to critically evaluate and dissect their own ideas and findings from their learning. Gestalt theory is another important piece of theory that sits under the cognitivism framework. In particular the work of Max Wertheimer (1922) shaped the theory in learning. Gestalt means â€Å"whole† or â€Å"shape or pattern† (www. learningandteaching. info/). In contrast to Thorndikes earlier concept that learning requires no insight, the Gestalt angle emphasises the importance of insight in learning. According to J. Atherton ‘it concentrates on the way in which the mind insists on finding patterns in things, and how this contributes to learning, especially the development of â€Å"insight†. ’ (www. learningandteaching. info/) According to gestalt theory, the brain will eventually see a pattern in what a learner is studying and make sense of it before the learner fully understands what it is they really understand the concept in a stage by stage process Once they have the ‘knack’, that learning becomes permanent. Within the learning environment, when many learners are trying to learn new skills, they can experience frustration and anxiety. It is the job of the teacher to keep motivating and encouraging them to continue until they get the knack. Such an example might be a learner driver learning to pull off without stalling. It’s useful to consider the Gestalt approach when planning lessons because if the teacher has a structured and repeated method of doing things, the learners will recognise the pattern and find it easier to complete exercises and learn from those exercises. Constructivism in learning Constructivism sits under the umbrella of cognitivism.

Bilateral Investment Treaties: Breach of Treaty or Contract

Bilateral Investment Treaties: Breach of Treaty or Contract The face of international investment has changed radically thanks to the proliferation of BITs in the past decade. This has led to foreign investment disputes increasingly being resolved through dispute resolution procedure. But the increase in arbitration to resolve investment related disputes hasnt been successful in resolving some of the issues arising from BITs. Rather some of the recent decision in international investment has exposed some of the underlying problem between the theoretical aspect of the bit and the practical aspect[1]. One of the major issues creating a lot of controversy is related to interpreting that umbrella clause in different BITs[2] and the conflict between breach of treaty v breach of contract. This clause, found in most of the BITs requires that each contracting party must honour and observe all obligations that have been entered with the investor from the other contracting state. This clause basically helps the investor to raise a contractual claim unde r the domestic law to a treaty claim under the BITs. According to Jarrod Wong the application of such clause results in the international arbitration tribunal constituted under the BIT (the BIT tribunal) to take jurisdiction over breach-of-contract claims since the umbrella clause raises the breach of contract to a treaty level breach which automatically gives jurisdiction to the tribunal[3]. To put it in the simplest way, it means that the investor can now ask the international investment tribunal to redress the breach of the investment contact by elevating it to the status of breach of the investment treat by way of international arbitration. Vivendi[4], SGS v. Pakistan[5], and SGS v. Philippines[6] are the three cases decided by International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) tribunal that have fuelled the controversy relating to umbrella clause[7] and additionally have discussed the relationship between a breach of contract and breach of treaty.   The above cases have shown how international arbitrators are inconsistent in their approach towards interpreting the umbrella clause in the governing BITs. This has led to a conflict on how the two-principal aspect of international investment practice work in consonance with each other. The two-principal aspect constitute of investment contract which is validated by the hosts states domestic law and the international investment agreement which are mostly the BITs[8]. If this underlying uncertainty isnt resolved soon, then the growth and favourability of international investment stands threatened.[9] Since overlaps between contract and treaty claims ar e expected to arise with increased frequency in the interim period (as a result of the ever-increasing scope of BIT coverage)[10]. This essay will first analyse the relationship between a contractual claim and treaty claim when both arise from same set of facts (a single action of the host state giving rise to the breach). The analysis will be done by discussing how different tribunal have assisted in developing this jurisprudence as it stands today and if there are any fault and changes required in the jurisprudence. The second part of the essay will deal the umbrella clause jurisprudence by focusing and dissecting the decision and reasoning of the tribunal in the SGS decision that have shaped the concept as it is today. At the end the conclusion will involve the analysis and recommendation relating to the jurisprudence discussed below and will also provide an analysis of the decisions that will be referred to. The parties in an investment transaction receive their substantive and procedural rights from the combination of different norm starting from the investment contract itself that is entered between the foreign investor and the local government which gives rise to private right and obligation. Then there is the domestic law of the host state that govern and protects the substantial rights and obligation of the party. These domestic laws fill in the normative gaps that arise in the contract, those domestic laws are mostly in the form of tax laws, environmental law et al. Domestic laws create substantive and procedural right and obligation in addition to those undertaken through the contract. Finally, Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) and Multilateral Investment Treaties (MITs) also govern many international foreign investments that required the host state to adhere to obligation by a fixed set of international law. A combination of the above norms provides for a suitable investment e nvironment for the foreign investor protecting and guaranteeing a return on the investment made.[11] The above set of norm give rise to different rights and there is claim under all the three set of norm and at time those claims can arise from a single set of facts. All the three norms work simultaneously to protect and observe all the right and obligation of the parties. As all the norm work together at times both contractual and treat claims can come from a single set of facts, that fact being the act of the government which can breach the investment contract and the investment treaty at the same time. The question that arises here is that if single set of facts gives rise to both treaty and contractual claims then will the tribunal have jurisdiction or will the court have jurisdiction over the dispute? This jurisprudence stands clarified that the tribunal will have jurisdiction over the treaty claims and the local court or arbitrator will have jurisdiction over contractual claims by international tribunal time and again, the most recent being the famous SGS decisions and it was first dealt with by the Lanco v Argentina[12] Tribunal. This ICSID jurisprudence established in Lanco[13] was based on the forum selection clause contained in the concession agreement which was in favour of domestic courts in Argentina. Argentina argued that because of the clause the tribunal has no jurisdiction over treaty claims as the consent in the contract by way of the forum selection clause over rides the general consent given in the BIT for ICSID arbitration. The tribunal however rejected the argument stating that United States-Argentina BIT allows the investor to submit the dispute to ICSID for treaty based claims and the consent is an expressed consent and cannot in any case be overridden by the consent given in the contract.[14] The Annulment Committee in the Vivendi case affirmed the Vivindi Tribunals decision on the issue relating to forum selection clause which was in line with the Lanco decision. The tribunal basically stated that the ICSID tribunal will never be deprived of jurisdiction over a treaty claim, including the case of treaty claims arising out of the contract even when there is a forum selection clause in the contract.[15] The tribunal in the Vivindi[16] case stated that in no way the forum selection clause would be: deemed to prevent the investor from proceeding under the ICSID Convention against the Argentine Republic on a claim charging the Argentine Republic with a violation of the Argentine-French BIT.[17] The forum selection clause was again a point of contention between the parties in both the SGS dispute and the tribunals decisions was in line with the prior jurisprudence. While discussing the SGS decisions one important point that is mostly not noted is that in both the disputes the tribunal asserted jurisdiction over the treaty claim which arose directly from the investment agreement. This cemented the ICSID jurisprudence that was established in earlier cases, both treaty claims and contractual claims can arise from the same set of facts. It can also be stated that, notwithstanding any forum selection clause, in a matter of treaty violation an international tribunal will always have jurisdiction over the treaty based claim. The tribunal in SGS v Pakistan cited the Vivindi annulment decision where the committee stated: [W] here the fundamental basis of the claim is a treaty laying down an independent standard by which the conduct of the parties is to be judged, the existence of an exclusive jurisdiction clause in a contract between the claimant and the respondent state cannot operate as a bar to the application of the treaty standard. At most, it might be relevant-as municipal law will often be relevant-in assessing whether there has been a breach of the treaty.[18] The tribunal also particularly stated that it will deal with the violation related to the treaty only and there will be no jurisdictional overlap with the PSI arbitrator as the PSI arbitrator will be dealing with contractual violation even though both the dispute arise from the same set of facts.[19] It must also be noted that the tribunal in SGS v Philippines also had to deal with similar type of forum selection clause and its decision was again in line with earlier jurisprudence. The SGS tribunals were consistent in their decision on forum selection clause in an underlying contract and also followed the jurisprudence that was established. The effect is that once treaty based claims are found and framed then the treaty based tribunal have the power to adjudicate them and no other forum selection clause can abridge that right. This authority will in no condition be abdicated on the reason that they claim are linked or arise from claims related to contracts. No forum selection clause in an underlying contract or a parallel proceeding relating to the claims can rob or stop the treaty based tribunal from deciding the treaty based claim as clear differentiation can be established between treaty based claims and contractual claims even if they arise from the same set of facts. We saw that there is a clear differentiation between a tribunal asserting jurisdiction on treaty claims when the dispute arises from the same set of fact related to an underlying investment contract. But the umbrella clause aims to do just the opposite by equating contract breaches with treaty breaches. SGS v Pakistan was the first case to deal with the umbrella clause in its practical aspect back in 2003 and then this question was again dealt with by SGS v Philippines. While trying to deal with the question of umbrella clause the SGS decisions left us with conflicting and confusing interpretation of the umbrella clause. The confusion can be attributed to how the SGS decisions lie on the opposite end of the spectrum, while SGS v. Pakistan determined that the BIT tribunal does not have any jurisdiction over contractual claims on the ground (that umbrella clause is very wide in its scope and there was no intention to cover contractual dispute), conversely SGS v. Philippines held that a BIT tribunal in fact has such jurisdiction (as the umbrella clause is to be applied as it is) but still held that it should not exercise this jurisdiction where the investment agreement contains an exclusive forum selection clause designating a specific but different forum from BIT tribunal for resolving disputes arising under the contract. The United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations has stated that the presence of an umbrella clause in a treaty: makes the respect of such contracts [between the host State and the investor] an obligation under the treaty. Thus, the breach of such a contract by the host State would engage its responsibility under the agreement and-unless direct dispute settlement procedures come into play-entitle the home State to exercise diplomatic protection of the investor.[20] The inclusion of umbrella clause has widened the definition of a arbitrable dispute and over the time tribunal have found and concluded that jurisdiction of a tribunal is no more restricted to claims of violation of substantive provision of BIT.[21] It may be noted that the clauses in BITs are not yet tested as they have been drafted keeping in mind the future requirement for an favourable investment and they are put to test only when any dispute arises and they are placed before an arbitral tribunal. Two of the recent decision relates to the interpretation of the umbrella clause discussed below shows what challenges can the umbrella clause being with them. The SGS Reasonings The SGS decision are the two most recent and important decision on umbrella clause. While SGS v Pakistan took a very restrictive approach in interpreting the clause over contractual claims, SGS v Philippines made a broad interpretation of the umbrella clause by covering both treaty claims and contractual claims. SGS v Pakistan was faced with an umbrella clause, which according to the tribunal was very broad in its scope. The tribunal went on to state that the clause is so broad that it cant be construed to cover contractual claims (compromissory clause article 9 of BIT only intended to cover treaty claims not contractual claims)[22].   The tribunal also found that the umbrella clause in article 11 of the BIT did not transfer SGS contractual claims in to BIT claim. The tribunal stated that a straight forward reading and literal interpretation of the clause encompasses the contractual claims, but the tribunal was concerned that it will convert every contractual claim into a breach of BIT claim and would open a floodgate of cases.[23] The tribunal was very explicit in stating that they dont intent the clause to be so wide in its scope and assumed that the parties also never intended to do so. Giving effect to the clause would be exceeding what the contracting parties intended and the tri bunal is willing to accept.[24] So eventually the tribunal took jurisdiction over treaty claim only and allowed to PSI arbitrator to resolve the contractual disputes. SGS v Philippines was faced with the decision of the earlier SGS v Pakistan tribunal which came before some months only. The tribunal felt that the SGS v Pakistan tribunal didnt give the full and proper effect to the umbrella clause stating that the clause doesnt change the applicable   law on the contract from Philippines law to international.[25] The applicable law remains the domestic law only, the umbrella clause makes sure that the host state honours the obligation it has undertaken under the contract in effect, the clause help to secure the performance of the contract obligation by the host state in relation to international investment protection law.[26] Surprisingly after giving a broad interpretation to the clause the tribunal suspended the proceedings asking the claimant to get the judgement from the domestic court first and then come back to the tribunal if the claimant finds that the judgment is unsatisfactory or the host state doesnt comply with the judgment. The tribunal felt that they have jurisdiction over the dispute, but it is not yet admissible as there is another forum selection clause closer to the contract and if that fail then the tribunal can take jurisdiction.[27] Basically, speaking the tribunal stated that they have jurisdiction over the matter but it will become admission when the forum selection clause doesnt provide justice it will be admissible as it will get elevated to treat violation under the doctrine of denial of justice under international law.[28] Its clear by now that both tribunals decided not to decide on the contractual claim. As Thomas W Walde states, this happened because both the tribunal feared that it will open a floodgate. The SGS v Pakistan was much sincere and clearly vocal about the fear whereas the SGS v Philippines tribunal wrapped it in a more technical consideration.[29] In the end, we can see that both the SGS decision have left the concept of Umbrella clause on a very uneven ground by reaching at two different conclusions. In my opinion an umbrella clause provides much more confidence than a forum selection clause. The reason umbrella clause is preferred because it provides for the disputes to be resolved by a neutral tribunal as both the parties have equal say in the selection and appointment of the tribunals. whereas the forum selection clause requires that the dispute be resolved by a domestic court where the host state has an interest. This doesnt help to instil any confidence of the foreign investor in the domestic forum.[30] The SGS v Pakistan tribunal didnt take into consideration the entire jurisprudence of international law, had it vested far enough it would have realised that the jurisprudence states that contracts of aliens with a government are protected under international law, but only if there are not merely commercial, but have an e lement of governmental powers and prerogative.[31] The intention and aim of investment treaty are not to cover and protect normal commercial functions but rather the action of the government which may seem business like but are sovereign in nature. Had the tribunal delved and concentrated on this core aspect of international investment law it would have realised that the PSI contract involves the power of government (matter related to custom and revenue are the sovereign function of government and PSI agreement was a contract relating to the sovereign action of the Pakistan government) and it would have been able to assert jurisdiction without opening any floodgates. In my opinion when there is an umbrella clause, the parties should go ahead to give effect to the clause, however wide it is. The jurisprudence behind the umbrella clause is to give it a broad interpretation by literally reading it the way it is written. Further, if the argument given in the decision are carried to the extreme, it would invalidate not just the umbrella clause, but all BIT provisions. Conversely the host state should be the one to take the first step to allow the umbrella to take effect and raise the contract claim to treaty claim. Although this step would benefit both the parties, but the host state stands to gain from this action rather than loosing anything. My analogy is based on the assumptions that such an action would be beneficial to the host state, as it will be seen as a positive and pro-investment stance by other investors. The host state stand to benefit by way of a more hospitable, more attractive environment for foreign investment by the adoption of the BIT provisions such as clause like umbrella clause (also forum section clause). Another issue that arises is, reengaging with the clause of the BIT after the investment and that too after a claim has arisen, creates uncertainty in the global marketplace and this may will result in investor losing confidence in the host effecting loss of investment opportunity. In my conclusion, I complete agree with what Jarrod wong states, the language, history and purpose of umbrella clause dictates one reasonable interpretation that it applies to investment contracts without any exception and hence it should be enforced in case of any dispute in accordance with the partys agreement.[32] Moreover, a foreign investor enters an investment agreement with the host by drawing confidence from the BIT and its clauses should be applied as it is until and unless it is blatantly against any concept of international law. Some recent cases have tried to deal with the interpretation of the umbrella clause. while some went for the decision went for Broad, Unconditional Plain Meaning of the clause like SGS v. Paraguay[33] and EDF v. Argentina[34]. Those cases stuck to the concept that there should be a plain meaning buy some of them went for conditional plan meaning but none of the tribunal went ahead to clarify the confusion created by the SGS decision. We are slowly seeing a trend in the practice but far from reaching a conclusive finality. So, the present requirement is for ICSID to clarify on the umbrella issue that has cropped up because of the SGS decisions and the interpretation of the clause should be broad and literal as the jurisprudence related to the umbrella clause suggests. [1] Yuval Shany, Contract Claims Vs. Treaty Claims: Mapping Conflicts Between Icsid Decisions On Multisourced Investment Claims, The American Journal of International Law, American Society of International LawVol. 99, No. 4 (Oct., 2005), pp. 835-851 [2] Jarrod Wong, Umbrella Clauses in Bilateral Investment Treaties: Of Breaches of Contract, Treaty Violations, and the Divide between Developing and Developed Countries in Foreign Investment Disputes, 14 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 135 (2006). [3] ibid [4] Compania de Aquas del Aconquija, S.A. v. Argentina, Decision on Annulment, ICSID No. ARB/97/3, 41 ILM 1135, 1154 (2002). [5] SGS Societe Generale de Surveillance S.A. v. Pakistan, Decision on Jurisdiction, ICSID No. ARB/01/13 (Aug. 6, 2003), 18 ICSID REV. 301 (2003), 42 ILM 1290 (2003) [6] SGS Societe Generale de Surveillance S.A. v. Philippines, Decision on Jurisdiction, ICSID No. ARB/02/6 (Jan. 29, 2004) [7] Shany, (n1) [8] ibid [9] Cf Kalypso Nicolaidis Joyce L. Tong, Diversity or Cacophony? The Continuing Debate over New Sources of International Law, 25 MICH.J. INTL L. 1349, 1351 (2004) [10] Shany, (n1) [11] Ibid., pp. 835-851 [12] Lanco International Inc. v. the Argentine Republic (hereinafter Lanco), ICSID Case No. ARB/97/6, Preliminary Decision: Jurisdiction of the Arbitral Tribunal, 8 December 1998, 40 I.L.M. 457, 2001 [13] Ibid. [14] ibid., at para. 31. [15] Compania de Aguas del Aconquija S.A. and Vivendi Universal v. Argentine Republic (ICSID Case No. ARB/97/3, Decision on Annulment of 3 July 2002, 41 I.L.M. 1135, 2002, at para. 50. [16] ibid [17] ibid., at para. 54 [18] ibid., at para. 140 [19] SGS v Pakistan (n 5) at para 186 187 [20] United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations, Bilateral Investment Treaties, UNCTC, 1988, at 39. [21] Christoph Schreuer, Travelling the BIT Route: of waiting periods, umbrella clause and Fork in the road, 5 J.W.I.T 2, 231 (2004) [22] ibid [23] Stanimir a alexandrov, Breaches of Contract and Breaches of Treaty: The Jurisdiction of Treaty-based Arbitration Tribunals to Decide Breach of Contract Claims in SGs v Pakistan and SGs v Philippines [2004] 5 J. World Investment Trade 55 [24] Emmanuel Gaillard, Investment Treaty Arbitration and Jurisdiction Over Contract Claims- the SGS Cases Considered in International Investment Law and Arbitration: Leading cases from the ICSID, NAFTA, Bilateral Treaties and Customary International Law, Tod Weiler Editor (2005).257, 2004, at 271-272 [25] alexandrov, (n 23) [26] SGS v Philippine (n 6) at para 126 [27] Stephen Schwebel, International Protection of Contractual Agreements (1959) A.S.I.L. Proc. 273 [28] ibid [29] Thomas W. Wà ¤lde, The Umbrella (or Sanctity of Contract/Pacta sunt Servanda) Clause in Investment Arbitration: A Comment on Original Intentions and Recent [2004] 1(4) TDM   1 [30] Wong, (n 2) [31] Schwebel, (n 24) [32] Wong, (n 2) [33] Socià ©tà © Gà ©nà ©rale de Surveillance S.A. v. Republic of the Philippines, ICSID Case No. ARB/02/6 [34] EDF International S.A., SAUR International S.A. and Leon Participaciones Argentinas S.A. v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/03/23 Cocaine Addiction: History, Effects and Symptoms Cocaine Addiction: History, Effects and Symptoms Cocaine Addiction An Overview of Cocaine Addiction What is Cocaine? Cocaine is a stimulant drug that produces a greater effect of ‘high’ than other drugs such as methamphetamine. It comes in a form of white powder or crystal form with a bitter numbing taste. In general, the powder form is mixed with other materials such as talcum powder, icing sugar, cornstarch or other drugs such as amphetamine or procaine. Cocaine is derived from coca leaves, then processed into cocaine hydrochloride to produce the base of the drug which is develop into two forms recognized as crack and freebase. White crack typically comes in the shape of crystals varies in color from creamy or white to a transparent color with a yellow or pink tinge whereas freebase is the white crystalline powder form. Cocaine generally snorted through the nasal tissues hence absorbed into the bloodstream. Some people also rub the drug at their gums and swallowing it. Ways of ingesting it depends on the preference of the users, some want a rapid high sensation would inject it or inh ale it as a vapor or smoke. Cocaine is widely known by many names that includes pepsi, coke, crack, Charlie, base, sugar block and rock. Brief History Cocaine was once misclassified as a narcotic drug that depresses the nervous system. It is a powerful stimulant and indigenous natives chewed the coca leaves for boosts of energy. The natives believed it was given by the God and reserves the coca’s pleasure for royalties and high priests. In overtime, the coca leaves were spread to the common people. In 1860, the secret of the coca leaves caught the attention of a pharmaceutical company located in Germany. In the facility, the ancient coca leaf collided with modern chemistry and the drug’s active ingredients are isolated from coca’s chemical properties by chemist, Albert Niemann. After the chemical isolation, a crystal substance is formed and it was named Cocaine which derives from â€Å"coca† and the alkaloid suffix â€Å"-ine†. Niemann stripped the leaves of its mono rating substances and unknowingly created the world’s most addictive drug. How it is used? There are four common ways of ingesting cocaine which are oral, intravenous, intranasal and inhalation. In other street terms it is called chewing, injecting or mainlining, snorting and smoking. Intravenous use is a method of using a hypodermic needle to inject cocaine directly into the bloodstream causing instant intense effect to the user. Whereas intranasal administration is the process of snorting powdered cocaine through the external opening of the nose. Smoking cocaine requires breathing in the smoke or vapor of a burning cocaine into the lungs where the effects are sucked up into the bloodstream to create instantaneous euphoric high as such injecting cocaine. Users should be aware that there are absolute no safe way of using cocaine as the listed methods of using the drug result in absorption of toxic amounts of cocaine, cerebrovascular emergencies, acute cardiovascular and seizures that can to sudden death. Effects on the brain Cocaine activates norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin, chemicals that stimulates movements, excitement and feelings of pleasure. Normally, when you get excited, startle, and frighten the brain makes you react in order to get out from harm’s way. Cocaine works in the similar way in the brain automatically without you needing it to occur. This addictive drug is a powerful central nervous system stimulant that stimulates the growth of neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain which is responsible to regulate movement and pleasure. Generally, dopamine is freed by neurons in response to potential rewards and reprocess back into the cell that freed it and eventually shutting off signals in linked with neurons. Cocaine stops the dopamine from being reused thus leading to excessive number of dopamine to develop in the synapse. This process causes amplification of the dopamine signals and eventually disrupts standard brain communication. The overflow of dopamine is the main cause of cr eating the cocaine’s euphoric high. Constant heavy usage of the cocaine can cause permanent long-term modification of the brain’s reward system and also other systems of the brain. Effects on the lungs Smoking cocaine is the main contribution to the majority lung and breathing complications. Users smoke crack, freebase or paste by using water pipes, glass pipes or cigarettes, heated using matches or butane lighters. Residue from the cocaine contaminants, matches, tars and additives as such marijuana usually causes chronic coughing, bronchitis, and coughing black phlegm thus leading to multiple chest pain and shortness of breath. The practice of breath holding and deep inhalation technique maximizes the volume of cocaine inhaled and the absorption and can cause collapsing of the lung. At times, users often express sharp pains in the chest area due to deep breathing, neck pain, painful swallowing and buildup of air under the skin located at the neck area called subcutaneous emphysema, which has a feature of crackling touch sensation similar to Rice Krispies cereal. In addition, smoking cocaine can also cause pulmonary edema, a condition of the lung being filled with fluids that can c ause severe shortness in breath, respiratory failure and later death. Effects on the heart Cocaine stimulates the sympathetic nervous system that is mainly responsible for the fight response function which is controlled mostly by epinephrine or adrenaline. Increased of heart rates, high blood pressure and narrowing of blood vessels are the effects of using cocaine. Other type of cardiovascular complications that are caused by cocaine include rapid heart rate and abnormal heart rhythms known as cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy is a disease that weakens the walls of the aorta and causes aortic dissection and rupture of the heart muscle. Repeated use of cocaine can also cause narrowing in the arteries of the heart that can lead to the decrease of blood flow in the heart organ thus causing symptoms of angina, where heart muscles are deprived of oxygen-rich blood that usually cause death of heart tissues and heart attack. In addition, cocaine is also responsible for subsequent narrowing and accelerated hardening of the coronary arteries of the heart which results in heart attacks and cardiac deaths among users from the age of 19 to 44 years of age. Signs of Cocaine Abuse Addiction Cocaine is a drug that is highly addictive and interferes how the brain processes chemicals responsible for the feelings of pleasure. Users who are addicted to cocaine will lose control over the usage of the drug. Strong urges of need for the drug emerge from time to time although most users know the consequences after taking it. Here are some signs of cocaine addiction: Mood Swings The drug cocaine causes addicts to â€Å"crash† when they decide to quit. The term crash refers to moments where the addict’s mood swings changes rapidly from high to distress which causes addicts to continue taking it in order to feel normal. Excess of using the drug may lead to addiction. Withdrawal symptoms Addicts who are addicted to cocaine may show withdrawal symptoms of the drug. Withdrawal symptoms may include hunger, depression, suicidal thoughts, intense cravings, extended sleep or restless sleep, irritability and exhaustion. Abusing cocaine will seem the easy way out to not experience any withdrawal symptoms thus bringing the addict back to relapsing the drug. Change in Behavior If an addict abuses cocaine, their behavior will dramatically change after using the drug. The addict may seem happy or excited and acts more confidently to display an enthusiastic sense of well-being. Addicts also may appear talkative than usual, sexually excited, energy levels increased and loss of food appetite. Eye Changes The most obvious signs of abusing cocaine is the addict’s eyes. The pupil of their eyes are dilated and overly sensitive to light. The pupil is the black part in the eye and usually will constrict when there is light shone into it and get bigger when the presence of light is gone. Cocaine causes the addict’s pupils to dilate or get bigger than its usual size. Nasal Effect Other signs of cocaine addiction include nasal effects. Cocaine addicts usually have runny noses and nose bleed after prolonged use of the drug. Cocaine is heavily snorted through the nasal passages resulting narrowing in blood vessels which can cause blood pressure to increase and decrease in blood flow to the nasal cavity tissues. Without the right amount of blood supply to the nasal cavity tissues, the normal function of the nose may undergo massive damages such as loss of sense of smell and overall health may also be affected. Family members and loved ones should also be on the look-out for traces of white colored powder around the addict’s nose as an indication of cocaine abuse. Skin Effect Another sign of cocaine abuse is scratching of the skin. Cocaine users typically experience irritating crawling feelings under the skin. This crawling feeling is known as ‘snow bugs’ or ‘cocaine bugs’. Addicts describe the feeling of cocaine bugs as burning, itching, biting and creeping. Some addicts will tend to always scratch their skin until it bleeds to ease the irritation. Keep an eye for small bleeding wounds and formation of scabs on your loved ones to identify the abuse of cocaine. Over-Heating Regular cocaine addicts will always find themselves sweating excessively due to dramatic increase of the body temperature. Addicts may also hallucinate and feel agitated, confused and paranoid easily. Family members should notice behaviors of their loved ones such as constant pulling off their clothes or tries to cool down the body with cold showers, wandering the streets without reasons and violent behaviors as signs of cocaine addiction. Treating Cocaine Addiction Without proper treatment, cocaine addiction and abuse can lead to destructive injuries and irreversible harm. In due course, similar to other substance addiction it will cause overdose, accidents, chronic health issues and death. At Solace Sabah, we offer the latest drug recovery program that incorporates cutting edge psychotherapies, modern medicines, committed aftercare, family integration and customized treatment plans. Every client will be provided with thorough and effective care for even the worst possible case of drug addiction. If you find your loved one is relying highly on cocaine and powerless to stop using the drug, treatment and immediate intervention are their best option for a chance to live a healthy life again. Contact us today at Solace Sabah to gain an understanding on how our in-depth addiction treatment program can help your loved ones to start the recovery journey.